Environmental Chronology: Geological Formation of Malta (35–5 million years ago)
Tectonic Setting & Regional Context
Stratigraphic Sequence: Malta’s Bedrock Layers
Fossil Evidence and Paleoecology
Environmental and Climatic Conditions
Formation Processes and Land Emergence
Resulting Landscape Features
Geological Evidence Sites in Malta
Summary Table: Geological Formation Period (35–5 Ma)
Long-Term Legacy of This Period

Fossil remains in sedimentary rock at Tigne Point
Environmental Chronology
Indepth reading, follow the links:
- Geological Formation (35–5 million years)
- Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million – 11,700 years)
- Early Holocene & First Humans (ca. 5200 BCE)
- Temple Period (ca. 3600–2500 BCE)
- Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity (2500 BCE–500 CE)
- Medieval Period (500–1530 CE)
- Knights of St. John (1530–1798)
- British Period (1800–1964)
- Post-Independence to Present (1964–2025)
The Maltese Islands during their Geological Formation (ca. 35–5 million years ago) is a time when tectonics, sedimentation, and sea-level change shaped the foundations of the modern Maltese landscape. This period spans the late Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and into the early Pliocene, and it is entirely pre-human.
Tectonic Setting & Regional Context
Where is Malta Geologically?
- Malta lies on the Pelagian Block (African Plate), between the Sicily Channel Rift Zone and the Hellenic Arc.
- The region was influenced by the collision of the African and Eurasian plates:
- Led to uplift, faulting, and rifting.
- Created shallow marine basins ideal for limestone deposition.
Stratigraphic Sequence: Malta’s Bedrock Layers
The Maltese Islands are made of marine sedimentary rock, mainly from the Oligocene to Miocene (33–5 million years ago):
Rock Formation | Age (approx.) | Main Composition | Environmental Setting |
---|---|---|---|
Lower Coralline Limestone | ~33–28 Ma (Oligocene) | Hard limestone | Shallow warm marine reefs |
Globigerina Limestone | ~28–16 Ma (Oligocene–Miocene) | Soft, yellowish limestone | Deeper, calmer marine environment (plankton‑rich) |
Blue Clay | ~16–12 Ma (Middle Miocene) | Silty marl and clay | Deeper marine basin, low energy |
Greensand | ~12–10 Ma (Miocene) | Glauconitic sandstone | Transition zone; shallow basin nearshore |
Upper Coralline Limestone | ~10–5 Ma (Late Miocene–Pliocene) | Hard reef limestone | Shallow reef platforms during uplift |
Each layer reflects a specific marine environment, ranging from reef to deep ocean shelf.

Various sea creatures embedded in sedimentary rock at Tigne Point
Fossil Evidence and Paleoecology
Fossils Found in Maltese Formations:
- Lower & Upper Coralline Limestone: Corals, red algae, foraminifera, bryozoans.
- Globigerina Limestone: Planktonic foraminifera (Globigerina species), mollusks, nummulites.
- Blue Clay: Marine mollusks, microfossils, shark teeth.
- Greensand: Fish bones, marine invertebrates.
These fossils tell us:
- The region supported tropical to subtropical marine ecosystems.
- High biological productivity, especially during the Globigerina phase.
- No terrestrial animals — Malta was fully submerged during this period.
Environmental and Climatic Conditions
Period | Climate | Sea Level | Environmental Effect |
---|---|---|---|
Oligocene (~34–23 Ma) | Mild, cooling trend | Moderate | Reef‑building environments; widespread limestone formation |
Miocene (~23–5 Ma) | Warm, humid (early), then cooling | High (early), falling (late) | Sedimentation of clay and sand; shallow seas retreating by Late Miocene |
Messinian Salinity Crisis (~5.96–5.33 Ma) | Arid | Catastrophic sea level drop | Mediterranean Sea partially dried out; Malta may have briefly emerged |
Formation Processes and Land Emergence
- Malta’s layers accumulated under the sea for ~30 million years.
- The rifting and uplift of the Pelagian Block raised the region.
- By the end of the Miocene (~5 Ma), parts of the Maltese platform emerged above sea level, forming:
- Ridges (Upper Coralline)
- Depressions (Blue Clay valleys)
Key geological processes:
- Faulting and tilting (e.g. Victoria Lines Fault)
- Erosion of soft Blue Clay → created fertile valleys (e.g. Wied il-Għajn)
- Karstification of limestones → caves, sinkholes, and fissures
Resulting Landscape Features
Feature | Formed By |
---|---|
Dingli Cliffs | Marine erosion of uplifted Upper Coralline Limestone |
Victoria Lines | Major fault zone (Great Fault) between limestone layers |
Inland valleys | Erosion of Blue Clay beneath Upper Coralline Limestone caps |
Natural harbours | Valleys later drowned by rising sea levels |
Caves and sinkholes | Limestone dissolution (karst processes) |
Geological Evidence Sites in Malta
Site | Significance |
---|---|
Dingli Cliffs | Best exposure of Upper Coralline Limestone; dramatic uplift and marine erosion showcase Malta’s highest sea cliffs (~253 m). |
Blue Clay at Għajn Tuffieħa | Classic exposure of Blue Clay fostering slope instability and local spring formation where impermeable clay traps groundwater. |
Globigerina quarries (e.g. Mqabba) | Fossil‑rich Globigerina Limestone widely quarried and used as Malta’s traditional building stone (“franka”), renowned for its workability and heritage use. |
Fomm ir‑Riħ | Steep coastal section exposing Greensand and Blue Clay, as well as fault‑controlled syncline structure and varied stratigraphic layers. |
Summary Table: Geological Formation Period (35–5 Ma)
Category | Details |
---|---|
Plate tectonics | African Plate collision led to rifting and uplift |
Marine environments | Varied from reefs to deep-sea basins |
Rock types | Mainly limestones, with clays and sands |
Fossils | Rich marine life: corals, mollusks, foraminifera |
Sea-level effects | Layers reflect both deep and shallow marine settings |
Emergence of land | Malta likely emerged ~5 Ma (Pliocene), after the Messinian Salinity Crisis |
Long-Term Legacy of This Period
✔️ Landscape Structure:
- All of Malta’s topography, coastlines, and soil distribution trace back to this geological foundation.
✔️ Building Stone:
- Globigerina Limestone, used in temples and modern buildings, comes from this era.
✔️ Groundwater & Soil:
- Blue Clay aquicludes and Upper Coralline aquifers drive today’s water supply and spring systems.
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Environmental Chronology: Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity (2500 BCE–500 CE)
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Environmental Chronology: Early Holocene & First Human Settlement (ca. 5200 BCE)
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