Environmental Chronology: Pleistocene Malta (2.6 million – 11,700 years ago)

The Maltese Islands during the Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million – 11,700 years ago) is a time before humans arrived, when Malta was shaped by glacial-interglacial cycles, sea level fluctuations, and the presence of unique endemic megafauna.

This period laid the geological and ecological foundations for all later human-environment interactions in Malta.

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Global & Regional Pleistocene Context

Feature	Detail
Epoch Duration	~2.6 million – 11,700 years ago (ended with the last Ice Age)
Climate Pattern	Repeated glacial (cold) and interglacial (warm) periods
Sea Level Changes	Fluctuated up to 120 meters below and 5–10 meters above today’s levels
Malta’s Connection to Sicily	During glacial maxima, Malta was part of a land bridge to Sicily

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Geography of Pleistocene Malta

Glacial Periods (~120,000–11,700 years ago)

• Sea levels dropped by ~120 meters, exposing vast areas.
  
• Malta, Gozo, and Comino were likely part of a single large island or landmass.
  
• Exposed coastal plains, river valleys, and land bridges to Sicily may have formed.
  

Interglacial Periods

• Warmer climates and rising seas submerged low-lying land.
  
• Present-day island configuration re-emerged during these periods.
  

Key Sites:

Għar Dalam, Mgarr ix-Xini, Xagħra, and Marsaxlokk provide fossil and sediment evidence from this time.

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Vegetation and Paleoenvironment

Glacial Phases (Cold/Dry)

• Dominated by steppe and grassland vegetation.
  
• Sparse trees: juniper, pine, some oak species.
  
• Open habitats supported grazing megafauna.
  

Interglacial Phases (Warm/Moist)

• Return of woodland and maquis:
  
  • Holm oak (Quercus ilex), pine, wild olive, lentisk, carob
    
• Wetter conditions led to:
  
  • Formation of karst valleys and temporary wetlands.
    

Pollen Evidence

• Core samples (e.g., Burmarrad Valley) show alternating dominance of:
  
  • Grasses and herbs (glacial)
    
  • Trees and shrubs (interglacial)
    

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Fauna: Malta’s Ice Age Megafauna

Malta's isolation allowed the evolution of unique dwarf species from larger continental ancestors.

Species	Scientific Name	Traits
Dwarf Elephant	Palaeoloxodon mnaidriensis	~1 meter tall; herbivorous
Dwarf Hippopotamus	Hippopotamus melitensis	~1 m long; likely semi-aquatic
Giant Swans	Cygnus equitum	Likely flightless or limited fliers
Deer, turtles, and dormice	Various	Migrated during low sea levels

These species lived during glacial lowstands and were trapped as sea levels rose.

Extinction:

Most Ice Age megafauna in Malta became extinct around 10,000 BCE, likely due to:

• Climate change
  
• Habitat shrinkage
  
• Isolation and inbreeding
  

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Għar Dalam Cave: A Fossil Archive

Layer	Age Estimate	Contents
Hippopotamus layer	~180,000–20,000 BCE	Bones of dwarf hippos, elephants, and giant swans
Deer layer	Later Pleistocene	Red deer, birds, turtle remains
Cultural layer	Neolithic (~5200 BCE)	Flint tools, pottery, domestic animal bones (post-Pleistocene)

Sediments also contain:

• Charcoal and ash (later periods)
  
• Microfauna remains (e.g. bats, dormice)
  
• Pollen and seed remnants (climate reconstruction)
  

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Sea-Level Fluctuations and Land Bridges

Glacial Maximum (~20,000 BCE)

• Malta was likely connected to Sicily.
  
• Allowed faunal migration of mainland species.
  

Post-Glacial Melting (After 15,000 BCE)

• Rapid sea rise isolated Malta.
  
• Submerged fertile coastal plains and freshwater wetlands.
  

Environmental Consequences:

• Shrinking habitats
  
• Isolation of species → dwarfism and eventual extinction
  

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Climate Change and Environmental Shifts

Marine Isotope Stages (MIS)

• MIS 5, 3, and 1: Interglacial (warm)
  
• MIS 4, 2: Glacial (cold)
  

These climate shifts drove:

• Vegetation turnover (woodland–steppe cycles)
  
• Soil formation and erosion
  
• Periodic river and spring activity
  

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Summary Table: Pleistocene Malta

Aspect	Details
Climate	Fluctuating glacial–interglacial cycles
Vegetation	Woodland in interglacials; steppe in glacials
Fauna	Unique endemic megafauna (e.g. dwarf elephants, hippos, giant swans)
Sea level	Dropped up to 120m below current; rejoined with Sicily during glacials
Fossil record	Rich evidence at Għar Dalam and other caves
Human presence	Absent — humans arrive only around 5200 BCE (post-Pleistocene)

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Legacy of the Pleistocene Epoch in Malta

✔️ Geological and ecological shaping:

• Formed valleys, caves, and landscapes that define Malta today.
  
• Laid the soil base and hydrological systems for early human settlers.
  

✔️ Fossil heritage:

• Għar Dalam’s faunal record offers one of the best insights into insular dwarfism and island biogeography in the Mediterranean.
  

❌ Loss of biodiversity:

• Sea level rise and climate change caused mass extinctions before humans arrived.

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